AI-Based Cognitive Scaffolding and Academic Writing Performance among EFL Students
Abstract
Academic writing is a core competence for learners of English as a foreign language (EFL), yet it remains one of the most demanding skills because it requires the simultaneous integration of content development, idea organization, and linguistic accuracy. Many EFL students consequently devote disproportionate cognitive resources to lower-level language concerns, which may hinder higher-order processes such as coherence building and argument development. Drawing on sociocultural perspectives on cognitive scaffolding and the growing capacity of artificial intelligence (AI) tools to deliver immediate, individualized support, this study investigated whether AI-based cognitive scaffolding could enhance EFL students’ academic writing outcomes and whether such effects generalized across different dimensions of writing performance. A quasi-experimental pretest–posttest design was employed over 14 weeks with 53 first-year non-language-major students at a public university in Vietnam. Students’ writing performance was compared between a group that received AI-based scaffolding and a group that received conventional instruction. The findings showed that AI-mediated scaffolding produced a significant improvement in the experimental group’s overall academic writing performance (gain Δ = 0.81) compared with the control group (gain Δ = 0.55). However, the benefits were selective and domain-specific rather than uniform: the intervention markedly enhanced idea generation and language-related performance but had limited impact on organizational structure and content elaboration. These findings highlight both the strengths and the limitations of AI tools in EFL writing instruction and suggest that AI is most effective when embedded in an integrated pedagogy that combines technological scaffolds with explicit teaching and guided support to address higher-order writing demands.
Keywords
Full Text:
PDFReferences
Al-Khulaidi, M. A., & Abdulkhalek, M. M. (2022). Academic writing problems in L2 settings: Realities and need for intervention. Journal of English Studies in Arabia Felix, 1(1), 42–51. https://doi.org/10.56540/jesaf.v1i1.15
Allagui, B. (2024). A scaffolding intervention to improve self-efficacy in source-based argumentative writing. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1454104
Alzahrani, G. (2025). Academic writing difficulties of EFL learners at Najran University. Journal of Educational and Social Research, 15(3), 217–229. https://doi.org/10.36941/jesr-2025-0093
Bui, H. P., Nguyen, L. T., & Nguyen, T. V. (2023). An investigation into EFL pre-service teachers’ academic writing strategies. Heliyon, 9(2), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13743
Cer, E. (2019). The instruction of writing strategies: The effect of the metacognitive strategy on the writing skills of pupils in secondary education. SAGE Open, 9(2), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019842681
Chairinkam, J., & Yawiloeng, R. (2024). The use of scaffolding strategies to enhance the writing development of EFL students. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 14(9), 2996–3007. https://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.1409.35
El-Garawany, M. S. M. (2024). The effects of a QuillBot-based intervention on English language majors’ EFL writing performance, apprehension, and self-efficacy. Language Teaching Research Quarterly, 43, 167–189. https://doi.org/10.32038/ltrq.2024.43.10
Esperanzate, M. D. (2025). Teaching academic writing in English to ESL/EFL learners in higher education: A systematic review of strategies and challenges. Journal of Exceptional Multidisciplinary Research, 2(2), 45–54. https://doi.org/10.69739/jemr.v2i2.919
Ferris, D. R., & Hedgcock, J. S. (2014). Teaching L2 composition: Purpose, process, and practice (3rd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203813003
Hang, N. T. T. (2021). Vietnamese upper-high school teachers’ views, practices, difficulties, and expectations on teaching EFL writing. Journal on English as a Foreign Language, 11(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.23971/jefl.v11i1.2228
Hassen, S. K., Adugna, E. T., & Bogale, Y. N. (2024). EFL students’ writing achievement via the execution of scaffolding strategies instruction. System, 125, 103439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2024.103439
Hoang, T. N. D., & Hoang, T. (2022). Enhancing EFL students’ academic writing skills in online learning via Google Docs-based collaboration: A mixed-methods study. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 37(12), 1504–1526. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2022.2083176
Hong, H., Vate-U-Lan, P., & Viriyavejakul, C. (2025). Cognitive offload instruction with generative AI: A quasi-experimental study on critical thinking gains in English writing. Forum for Linguistic Studies, 7(7). https://doi.org/10.30564/fls.v7i7.10072
Hwang, W.-Y., Nurtantyana, R., Purba, S., Hariyanti, U., Indrihapsari, Y., & Surjono, H. (2023). AI and recognition technologies to facilitate English as foreign language writing for supporting personalization and contextualization in authentic contexts. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 61(4), 1008–1035. https://doi.org/10.1177/07356331221137253
Khojasteh, L., Hosseini, S. A., & Nasiri, E. (2021). The impact of mediated learning on the academic writing performance of medical students in flipped and traditional classrooms: Scaffolding techniques. Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning, 16(17), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41039-021-00165-9
Kies, S., & Lambert, O. (2023). Acquiring a scholar’s voice: Vietnamese students mastering academic vocabulary in thesis writing. Literatura y Lingüística, 46, 251–279. https://doi.org/10.29344/0717621X.46.3145
Le, T. A., & Trinh, N. T. (2025). A student-centered framework for understanding EFL thesis writing difficulties in Vietnam. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 24(11), 314–333. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.24.11.15
Li, M., & Wilson, J. (2025). AI-integrated scaffolding to enhance agency and creativity in K-12 English language learners: A systematic review. Information, 16(7), 519. https://doi.org/10.3390/info16070519
Liu, C., Hou, J., Tu, Y., Wang, Y., & Hwang, G.-J. (2023). Incorporating a reflective thinking promoting mechanism into artificial intelligence-supported English writing environments. Interactive Learning Environments, 31(9), 5614–5632. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2021.2012812
Mahapatra, S. (2024). Impact of ChatGPT on ESL students’ academic writing skills: A mixed methods intervention study. Smart Learning Environments, 11, 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-024-00295-9
Mekheimer, M. (2025). Generative AI-assisted feedback and EFL writing: A study on proficiency, revision frequency and writing quality. Discover Education, 4(1), 170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44217-025-00602-7
Mitina, T., Afanasenkova, I., Bazarnova, N., Shaikhova, B., & Oyamo, M. (2025). Cognitive-linguistic scaffolding as a tool for activating argumentative writing skills in the process of teaching analytical chemistry in English language. International Journal of Innovative Research and Scientific Studies, 8(2), 2171–2186. https://doi.org/10.53894/ijirss.v8i2.5645
Najmiah, L., & Al-Anbari, A. H. J. (2025). Narrative explorations of EFL learners’ engagement with AI tools in developing writing proficiency. DUTIES: Education and Humanities International Journal, 1(2), 42–62. https://doi.org/10.70152/duties.v1i2.222
Nguyen, B. M., Ta, H. H., & Nguyen, L. T. P. (2023). English teachers’ perception and attitudes of scaffolding method in teaching academic writing: An exploratory study at universities in Vietnam. Journal of Education and E-Learning Research, 10(3), 371–379. https://doi.org/10.20448/jeelr.v10i3.4717
Nguyen, A., Hong, Y., Dang, B., & Huang, X. (2024). Human-AI collaboration patterns in AI-assisted academic writing. Studies in Higher Education, 49(5), 847–864. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2024.2323593
Pandit, B. R. (2025). Issues and practices of academic writing in English in the global context. Journal of NELTA Gandaki, 8(1-2), 128–142. https://doi.org/10.3126/jong.v8i1-2.85077
Pham, N. T., Lin, M., Trinh, V. Q., & Bui, T. P. L. (2020). Electronic peer feedback, EFL academic writing and reflective thinking: Evidence from a Confucian context. SAGE Open, 10(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244020914554
Pham, V. P. H., & Bui, T. K. L. (2021). Genre-based approach to writing in EFL contexts. World Journal of English Language, 11(2), 95–106. https://doi.org/10.5430/wjel.v11n2p95
Pham, V. P. H., & Truong, M. H. (2021). Teaching writing in Vietnam’s secondary and high schools. Education Sciences, 11(10), 632. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11100632
Phuong, H. Y., Phan, Q. T., & Le, T. T. (2023). The effects of using analytical rubrics in peer and self-assessment on EFL students’ writing proficiency: A Vietnamese contextual study. Language Testing in Asia, 13(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-023-00256-y
Pratama, Y., Fridolini, F., & Pitaloka, R. M. (2025). The impact of AI QuillBot in improving student writing ability to write argumentative essays. English Review: Journal of English Education, 13(1), 215–222. https://doi.org/10.25134/erjee.v13i1.9746
Salleh, A. S., Ismail, N. L. M., & Rahman, E. A. (2025). Scaffold ED AI: Harnessing AI platforms for scaffolding academic writing in secondary and tertiary ESL classroom. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 9(25), 300–305. https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.925ILEIID000054
Shen, Y. (2025). AI-driven scaffolding and affective support in ESL argumentative writing: A multimodal analytics approach. In Proceedings of the 2025 6th International Conference on Education, Knowledge and Information Management (pp. 604–608). https://doi.org/10.1145/3756580.3756680
Singh, M. (2019). Academic reading and writing challenges among international EFL Master’s students in a Malaysian university: The voice of lecturers. Journal of International Students, 9(3), 972–992. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v9i3.934
Song, C., & Song, Y. (2023). Enhancing academic writing skills and motivation: Assessing the efficacy of ChatGPT in AI-assisted language learning for EFL students. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1260843. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1260843
Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12(2), 257–285.
Tran, T. T. T. (2025). Enhancing EFL writing revision practices: The impact of AI- and teacher-generated feedback and their sequences. Education Sciences, 15(2), 232. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15020232
Trinh, K. N., & Pho, P. D. (2024). English academic writing through the lens of culture: Implications for current practices in Vietnam. Science and Technology Development Journal, 27(SI), 56–63. https://doi.org/10.32508/stdj.v27isi.4409
Tsai, C.-Y., Lin, Y.-T., & Brown, I. K. (2024). Impacts of ChatGPT-assisted writing for EFL English majors: Feasibility and challenges. Education and Information Technologies, 29(17), 22427–22445. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12722-y
Tuong, T. P. L., & Tran, T. T. (2025). The differential impact of AI tools among EFL university learners: A process writing approach. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 24(5), 452–471. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.24.5.24
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.
Wei, Y., Sulaiman, N. A., & Ismail, H. H. (2024). Overcoming academic writing challenges: English language learning strategies for Chinese international high school students in blended learning environments. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 14(10), 3285–3294. https://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.1410.32
Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17(2), 89–100. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1976.tb00381.x
Zhang, H., Chen, C., Liu, Y., & Peng, L. (2025). From dependence to development: The role of AI in enhancing writing proficiency among Chinese English majors. Journal of Posthumanism, 5(8), 293–300. https://doi.org/10.63332/joph.v5i8.3159
Zhao, D. (2025). The impact of AI-enhanced natural language processing tools on writing proficiency: An analysis of language precision, content summarization, and creative writing facilitation. Education and Information Technologies, 30(6), 8055–8086. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-13145-5
Zulaikha, Z., Setyawan, C. E., Mabruri, M., & Rauhillah, S. (2025). The effectiveness of artificial intelligence and deep learning tools in enhancing academic journal writing: A mixed methods study of Arabic language education students in Indonesia. Transformasi, 21(1). https://doi.org/10.56357/jt.v21i1.429
DOI: https://doi.org/10.31004/jele.v11i5.2471
Refbacks
- There are currently no refbacks.
Copyright (c) 2026 Lam Quoc Huy, Dung Tien Nguyen
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
